The Art of Printmaking

Prints are commonly distinguished by the type of matrix used: woodcut if the matrix is wood, etching if it's metal (zinc or copper), lithography if it's stone, and screen printing if it's silk. This distinction, however, should be considered rather approximate since new techniques and printing methods have been introduced. A more appropriate distinction is based on how the matrix transfers the ink to the paper: the matrix can carry the ink with the relief part, the intaglio part, or the planographic part.

We will focus mainly on intaglio printing (calcography), which is the technique we normally operate with, but we will also briefly mention other types of printing. The first form of printing was relief printing (early 14th century, though it was known in China much earlier). Starting from a hard wood matrix (boxwood, cherry), the engraver clears the design using various gouges, leaving only the part to be printed in relief. The raised part is inked with a roller; the print is then obtained by laying a sheet of paper on the inked matrix and applying uniform weight with a vertical press. A print made from a wood matrix is called a woodcut.

Currently, however, wood matrices are almost always replaced by linoleum, which is a much easier material to work with. Woodcut is an extremely difficult and laborious technique: errors are always eliminated with extreme difficulty. This technique, used especially in the 14th and 15th centuries, fell into disuse until the end of the 19th century when it was revived, especially by the Expressionists.

PLANOGRAPHIC PRINTING

This technique is based on water repellency, as seen in lithography, where the design on a matrix retains the ink while non-drawn areas repel it. Printing occurs with a press. Screen printing, on the other hand, uses a silk screen to allow color to pass through only the open areas. These techniques leave an extremely thin and imperceptible film of ink on the paper.

WOODCUT

Woodcut, the oldest graphic technique, involves carving into a wood matrix by removing unwanted parts, leaving the image to be printed in relief. The design is then impressed through pressure, often using compact woods like cherry or boxwood.

There are two main variations:

Wood Engraving: This uses gouges and knives on wood cut parallel to the trunk (plank grain), allowing for free and gestural carvings.
End-Grain Wood Engraving: Performed on wood cut transversally (end grain), this technique allows for precise details thanks to the use of burins.

Historical Variations and Effects

Historical variants include camaieu and chiaroscuro, which employ multiple matrices to achieve effects of color and depth. These techniques were used to create polychromatic works and rich tonal variations through overlays.

ETCHING

Etching is an intaglio printmaking technique that uses a metal plate (copper or zinc) covered with a protective ground. The artist creates the design by drawing through this ground with a steel needle, exposing the metal beneath. The plate is then immersed in an acid solution (the "etching bath"), which "bites" into the exposed areas. This process creates grooves of varying intensity based on the immersion time and any subsequent acid baths.

After removing the protective ground, the printing process begins with an intaglio press. The paper, previously dampened, picks up the ink from the plate's grooves under pressure, producing a detailed and unique print. The printing phase, often executed by the artists themselves, is fundamental to the final result.

AQUATINT

This technique allows for chiaroscuro effects and tonal gradations. A resinous powder (like rosin) is dusted onto the matrix and then fused with heat. The spaces between the grains allow the acid to bite the plate, creating textures and shades.

Aquatint is often combined with etching and is also used for color prints, with each plate dedicated to a specific color. Alternatively, a polychrome print can be achieved from a single plate by distributing the colors directly onto it. The results vary based on the chosen technique.

LITHOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES

Lithography, invented in 1796 by Aloys Senefelder, is a planographic printing technique that exploits the water-repellent properties of a limestone slab. The artist draws with a greasy crayon on a dry stone, which retains ink only on the drawn parts, while wet areas repel it. Printing is done using a horizontal press.

Chromolithography: Color and Versatility
Chromolithography, an evolution of lithography, uses multiple matrices to achieve color prints, ensuring high fidelity to the original design and unique versatility. This quality made it beloved by artists such as Picasso, De Chirico, and Miró. This technique allows for linear effects, soft gradients, and vivid tones through a relatively simple and repeatable process.

SOFT GROUND ETCHING

In Soft Ground Etching, the matrix is covered with a ground composed of wax and tallow. The design is traced with a pencil, interposing sheets of paper with varying degrees of graininess between the pencil and the plate. The resulting mark is quite irregular and soft, resembling a pencil drawing (hence this technique is also known as "maniera a lapis" or "pencil manner").

To conclude on the various intaglio methods, it's worth noting that these techniques are often combined by engravers according to their individual preferences.

ENGRAVING (BULINO ENGRAVING)

Engraving is one of the oldest and most precise intaglio printmaking techniques. It involves directly carving lines into a metal plate (typically copper or zinc) using a specialized hand tool known as a burin (or, in Italian, "bulino").

Unlike etching, which employs acid to create lines, engraving relies solely on the artist's skill and physical strength to incise the design. The burin is pushed across the plate, cutting away slivers of metal to create V-shaped furrows. The depth and width of these incised lines directly determine the intensity and character of the printed mark.

This technique is renowned for its crisp, clean lines and remarkable detail, enabling the creation of intricate shading through precise cross-hatching and parallel lines. Engraving demands exceptional control, patience, and precision from the artist, making it a highly valued technique for its distinctive aesthetic and refined quality.

DRYPOINT

Drypoint (known in Italian as "Puntasecca") is created by drawing directly onto the plate with a sharp steel needle. In this technique, the line is much quicker and freer than in engraving. The subtle burrs that are raised on either side of the incised line are not removed; instead, these burrs give the printed mark a delicate, velvety character. Due to the fragility of these burrs, which are easily flattened by the pressure of the press, only a very limited number of copies can be obtained with this technique.

MEZZOTINT

Mezzotint, also known as "Maniera Nera," is an intaglio printmaking technique that creates tonal gradations from deep black to white. The plate is initially systematically textured with a rocking tool (a steel half-moon shaped instrument), creating a uniform burred surface that, if printed directly, would produce a rich, intense black. Subsequently, a burnisher is used to smooth down these burrs, achieving the desired grays and whites.

This technique, while refined, is laborious but allows for delicate and soft tonal effects. However, due to the wear on the matrix, only a limited number of copies can be produced.

INTAGLIO PRINTING

Intaglio printing, traditionally attributed to Maso Finiguerra, originated from engraving on metals such as copper or zinc. Initially used by goldsmiths for nielli (engravings filled with a dark compound), this technique later allowed the transfer of engraved designs onto paper, giving birth to calcography.

The mark is created directly on the matrix with tools like the burin, drypoint needle, or mezzotint rocker, or indirectly through the use of acids. The print is obtained by forcing ink into the incised grooves and then transferring it onto dampened paper with a printing press.

SCREEN PRINTING TECHNIQUES

Artistic screen printing, derived from a serial technique developed in China, was perfected in 17th-century Japan. It uses a frame with an open-weave fabric, which is made impermeable according to the design. During printing, ink is pushed through the untreated areas of the fabric with a squeegee, depositing onto the surface below.

Originally, silk matrices were used (hence the name), but modern synthetic materials have made the technique more versatile, allowing for complex and multi-color works. Screen printing is valued for its saturated and opaque inks, ideal for large, uniform surfaces. Gaining prominence as an autonomous art form in the 20th century, it continues to enjoy growing interest today.